Gilgamesh

According to the Sumerian king list, Gilgameš was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II, first dynasty of Uruk). He ruled circa 2600 BC. He became the central character in the Epic of Gilgamesh - one of the best known works of early literature, which says that his mother was Ninsun (whom some call Rimat Ninsun), a goddess. Gilgamesh is described as two thirds god and one third human.

According to another document, known as the "History of Tummal", Gilgamesh, and eventually his son Urlugal, rebuilt the sanctuary of the goddess Ninlil, located in Tummal, a block of the Nippur city. In Mesopotamian mythology, Gilgamesh is credited with having been a demigod of superhuman strength who built a great wall to defend his people from external threats.

Cuneiform references

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is said to have ordered the creation of the legendary walls of Uruk. An alternative version has Gilgamesh, towards the end of the story, boasting to Urshanabi, the ferryman, that the city's walls were built by the Seven Sages. In historical times, Sargon of Akkad claimed to have destroyed these walls to prove his military power.

Fragments of an epic text found in Me-Turan (modern Tell Haddad) relate that Gilgamesh was buried under the waters of a river at the end of his life. The people of Uruk diverted the flow of the Euphrates River crossing Uruk for the purpose of burying the dead king within the riverbed. In April 2003, a German expedition discovered what is thought to be the entire city of Uruk - including, where the Euphrates once flowed, the last resting place of its King Gilgamesh.

Despite the lack of direct evidence, most scholars do not object to consideration of Gilgamesh as a historical figure, particularly after inscriptions were found confirming the historical existence of other figures associated with him: kings Enmebaragesi and Aga of Kish. If Gilgamesh were a historical king, he probably reigned in about the 26th century BCE. Some of the earliest Sumerian texts spell his name as Bilgames. Initial difficulties in reading cuneiform resulted in Gilgamesh making his re-entrance into world culture in 1891 as "Izdubar".

In most texts, Gilgamesh is written with the determinative for divine beings (DINGIR) - but there is no evidence for a contemporary cult, and the Sumerian Gilgamesh myths suggest the deification was a later development (unlike the case of the Akkadian god kings). With this deification, however, would have come an accretion of stories about him, some potentially derived from the real lives of other historical figures, in particular Gudea, the Second Dynasty ruler of Lagash (2144–2124 BCE).

Historical or not, Gilgamesh became a legendary protagonist in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name Gilgamesh appears once in Greek, as "Gilgamos". The story is a variant of the Perseus myth: The King of Babylon determines by oracle that his grandson Gilgamos will kill him, and throws him out of a high tower. An eagle breaks his fall, and the infant is found and raised by a gardener.

In popular culture

• Several elements and characters from the Epic of Gilgamesh appear in the Doctor Who novel TimeWyrm: Genesis.
• In the Outer Limits episode "Demon with a Glass Hand", written by Harlan Ellison, the Control Voice associates the main character in the episode to Gilgamesh.
• In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Darmok", Captain Picard uses the phrase "Gilgamesh and Enkidu at Uruk" to show his dying companion, Captain Dathon, that he understands the Tamarian metaphoric language. Picard also gives a condensed retelling of the Epic of Gilgamesh.
• Gilgamesh is known as "The Forgotten One" in Marvel Comics and is a member of The Avengers.
• Gilgamesh is one of the many servants summoned in the visual novel and anime Fate/stay night and serves as a major antagonist in the story.
• Gilgamesh appears in both popular computer games, Civilization III: Conquests, and Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword as the leader of the Sumerian civilization.
• Gilgamesh is also a recurring character in the Final Fantasy series.
• Gilgamesh is referenced in the They Might Be Giants song "The Mesopotamians". the song also alludes to the Mesopotamian kings Sargon, Hammurabi, and Ashurbanipal. Gilgamesh fears death.
• In the video game Devil May Cry 4 Gilgamesh is the name of one of the protagonist's armor pieces.

Notes

1. In Alfred Jeremias, Izdubar-Nimrod, eine altbabylonische Heldensage (1891).
2. N.K. Sandars, page 16 in the introduction to The Epic of Gilgamesh (Penguin, 1972).
3. Walter Burkert: The Orientalizing Revolution, citing Aelian, On animals 12.21; Burkert's citation as Varia historia is an editing error.

References

• Damrosch, David (2007). The Buried Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Great Epic of Gilgamesh. Henry Holt and Co.. ISBN 0-805-08029-5.
• George, Andrew [1999], The Epic of Gilgamesh: the Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian, Harmondsworth: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1999 (published in Penguin Classics 2000, reprinted with minor revisions, 2003. ISBN 0-14-044919-1
• George, Andrew, The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic - Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 volumes, 2003.
• Foster, Benjamin R., trans. & edit. (2001). The Epic of Gilgamesh. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97516-9.
• Hammond, D. & Jablow, A. [1987], "Gilgamesh and the Sundance Kid: the Myth of Male Friendship", in Brod, H. (ed.), The Making of Masculinities: The New Men's Studies, Boston, 1987, pp.241-258.
• Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, transl. with intro. (1985,1989). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press: Stanford, California. ISBN 0-8047-1711-7. Glossary, Appendices, Appendix (Chapter XII=Tablet XII). A line-by-line translation (Chapters I-XI).
• Jackson, Danny (1997). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 0-86516-352-9.
• Mitchell, Stephen (2004). Gilgamesh: A New English Version. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-6164-X.
• Oberhuber, K., ed. (1977). Das Gilgamesch-Epos. Darmstadt: Wege der Forschung.
• Parpola, Simo, with Mikko Luuko, and Kalle Fabritius (1997). The Standard Babylonian, Epic of Gilgamesh. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. ISBN 951-45-7760-4 (Volume 1).

Original cuneiform text

• Original cuneiform text of the XI tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh (standard Babylonian version)

Text translations

• Sumerian texts: ETCSL
  • Gilgamesh and Huwawa, version A - (the adventure of the cedar forest)
  • Gilgamesh and Huwawa, version B
  • Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven
  • Gilgamesh and Aga
  • Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world
  • The death of Gilgamesh
• The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/), Oxford 1998-.
• http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM
• The Epic of Gilgamesh: A Spiritual Biography
• Comparison of The Epic of Gilgamesh to the Genesis flood

Translations for several legends of Gilgamesh in the Sumerian language have been written by:

• Black, J.A.,
• Cunningham, G.,
• Fluckiger-Hawker, E,
• Stephen Mitchell
  • Stripped Books: Stephen Mitchell on Gilgamesh - a comic-book adaptation of a talk by Stephen Mitchell about the epic poem.
  • Mitchell's translation was also adapted as a radio play for Radio 3 by Jeremy Howe, first broadcast on Sunday 11 June, 2006 from 19:30-21:30 [1]
• Robson, E.,
• Zólyomi, G.,